joão alcindo martins e silva

A bubonic plague epidemic broke out in the Portuguese city of Oporto in June 1899. Six months later, when it had come to an end, 132 deaths along 320 patients had been recorded. Although it was a city with industrial activity and the precursor of several technological innovations, the hygienic and sanitary conditions of the population of Oporto at that time left a lot to be desired. These features certainly made it easier for the plague to spread, which was detected by unusual deaths in those residing in dilapidated and dirty houses by the river Douro. Ricardo Jorge (1858-1939), the municipal doctor at the time, did not hesitate in stating that the outbreak showed clinical, epidemiological and technological signs of bubonic plague. Civil authorities and the press played down the event for more than a month. Finally, by order of the Government, a wide cordon sanitaire was established around the city, to prevent the spread of the epidemic to the rest of the country. As this resolution was not welcomed by the population, traders, and medical associations, the Government was forced to remove the city siege. Ricardo Jorge, who discovered the cause of the disease and was the main individual promoting the sanitary measures carried out, decided to abandon Oporto and settle in Lisbon after being unfairly misunderstood and subject to persecution. Keywords Oporto; bubonic plague; epidemic; cordon sanitaire; sanitary measures Résumé Une épidémie de peste bubonique a éclaté dans la ville portugaise de Oporto en juin 1899. Six mois plus tard, une fois terminée, 132 décès et 320 patients ont été enregistrés. Bien que ce fût une ville avec une activité industrielle et le précurseur de plusieurs innovations technologiques, les conditions d'hygiène et d'hygiène de la population de Oporto à cette époque laissaient beaucoup à désirer. Ces caractéristiques ont certainement facilité la propagation de la peste, qui a été détectée par des décès inhabituels chez ceux résidant dans des maisons délabrées et sales au bord du fleuve Douro. Ricardo Jorge (1858-1939), alors médecin municipal, n'hésita pas à déclarer que l'épidémie montrait des signes cliniques, épidémiologiques et technologiques de peste bubonique. Les autorités civiles et la presse ont minimisé l'événement pendant plus d'un mois. Enfin, sur ordre du Gouvernement, un large cordon sanitaire a été établi autour de la ville, pour empêcher la propagation de l'épidémie dans le reste du pays. Cette résolution n'ayant pas été bien accueillie par la population, les commerçants et les associations médicales, le gouvernement a été contraint de lever le siège de la ville.

This chapter focuses on the relevance of heart and venous valves as presented in the section of "Brief Instruction on Blood Circulation Enriched with Notes for its Usefulness for Beginners", book on blood circulation written for the teaching of surgery by the Portuguese surgeon Francisco José Brandão. The book was published in 1761. The records of heart and venous valves are tracked from the earliest observations in Antiquity to the date of publication of the work by Brandão. The utmost importance of valves in the construction of the model of blood circulation as proposed by William Harvey in 1628 is emphasised in particular. Resumo Do livro sobre a circulação do sangue publicado em 1761 pelo cirurgião Francisco José Brandão, destinado à aprendizagem dos principiantes de cirurgia, foi analisado para este artigo o conteúdo que trata das válvulas cardíacas e venosas. O assunto foi apreciado desde as primeiras observações na Antiguidade e até à data da publicação da obra original. Foi dado particular realce à importância fundamental daquelas válvulas para a definição do modelo da circulação sanguínea proposto por William Harvey em 1628.

The development of the most active period of Persian medicine occurred in the ancient city of Gondeshapur, between the third and seventh centuries. Rebuilt between 256 and 260 by Shapur I, the second Sassanid monarch, Gondeshapur is said to have welcomed the first hospital and the consequent study of medicine, mainly based on the Greek system. It has also been mentioned that these teachings would be expanded by his successor, Shapur II. However, both statements need solid confirmation. Nestorian priests-professors and other academics expelled from the Byzantine Empire gave fundamental encouragement to cultural and medical development in Gondeshapur. With Khosrow I, Gondeshapur became a cosmopolitan city with studies of medicine, philosophy, eloquence, and music. The medical studies were conducted in an academic setting, and practiced in a hospital, with the documentary support of a library which would be provided with the main texts, mainly of Greek, Syrian, and Indian origin. The Byzantine-inspired hospital system of Gondeshapur with its own management, organic system, and differentiated personnel, was later reproduced in several cities of the Middle East and medieval Europe under Islamic rule. The academic prestige and functionality of Gondeshapur, which peaked in the seventh century, began to decline in the following centuries apparently due to the creation of similar intellectual and hospital centres in Baghdad, by the Caliph al-Mansur, and the subsequent transfer of doctors, technicians, professors and other personnel from Gondeshapur, to ensure there the operation of hospitals and also medical studies. This cultural policy was continued and expanded by al-Mansur successors, in particular by the Caliph al-Ma'mun, until the tenth century.